Apkarian AV, Bushnell MC, Treede RD, Zubieta JK (2005) Human brain mechanisms of pain perception and regulation in health and disease. Eur J Pain 9: 463-484
Appenzeller O, Bicknell JM (1969) Effects of nervous system lesions on phantom experience in amputees. Neurology 19: 141-146
Baron R, Maier C (1995) Phantom limb pain: are cutaneous nociceptors and spinothalamic neurons involved in the signaling and maintenance of spontaneous and touch-evoked pain? A case report. Pain 60: 223-228
Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Montoya P, Larbig W, Unertl K, Topfner S, Grodd W, Taub E, Flor H (1997) Effects of regional anesthesia on phantom limb pain are mirrored in changes in cortical reorganization. J Neurosci 17: 5503-5508
Blumberg H, Jänig W (1982) Activation of fibers via experimentally produced stump neuromas of skin nerves: ephaptic transmission or retrograde sprouting? Exp Neurol 76: 468-482
Blumberg H, Jänig W (1982) Changes in unmyelinated fibers including sympathetic postganglionic fibers of a skin nerve after peripheral neuroma formation. J Auton Nerv Syst 6: 173-183
Bornhövd K, Quante M, Glauche V, Bromm B, Weiller C, Büchel C (2002) Painful stimuli evoke different stimulus-response functions in the amygdala, prefrontal, insula and somatosensory cortex: a single-trial fMRI study. Brain 125: 1326-1336
Bowlus TH, Lane RD, Stojic AS, Johnston M, Pluto CP, Chan M, Chiaia NL, Rhoades RW (2003) Comparison of reorganization of the somatosensory system in rats that sustained forelimb removal as neonates and as adults. J Comp Neurol 465: 335-348
Büchel C, Bornhövd K, Quante M, Glauche V, Bromm B, Weiller C (2002) Dissociable neural responses related to pain intensity, stimulus intensity, and stimulus awareness within the anterior cingulate cortex: A parametric single-trial laser functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurosci 22: 970-976
Calford MB, Tweedale R (1991) C-fibres provide a source of masking inhibition to primary somatosensory cortex. Proc R Soc Lond B 243: 269-275
Canu M-H, Treffort N, Picquet F, Dubreucq G, Guerardel Y, Falempin M (2006) Concentration of amino acid neurotransmitters in the somatosensory cortex of the rat after surgical or functional deafferentation. Exp Brain Res 173: 623-628
Chabal C, Jacobson L, Russell LC, Burchiel KJ (1992) Pain response to perineuromal injection of normal saline, epinephrine, and lidocaine in humans. Pain 49: 9-12
Chen Y, Michaelis M, Jänig W, Devor M (1996) Adrenoreceptor subtype mediating sympatheticsensory coupling in injured sensory neurons. J Neurophysiol 76: 3721-3730
Churchill JD, Muja N, Myers WA, Besheer J, Garraghty PE (1998) Somatotopic consolidation: a third phase of reorganization after peripheral nerve injury in adult squirrel monkeys. Exp Brain Res 118: 189-196
Churchill JD, Tharp JA, Wellman CL, Sengelaub DR, Garraghty PE (2004) Morphological correlates of injury-induced reorganization in primate somatosensory cortex. BMC Neurosci 5: 43
Cohen LG, Bandinelli S, Findley TW, Hallett M (1991) Motor reorganization after upper limb amputation in man. Brain 114: 615-627
Coull JA, Beggs S, Boudreau D, Boivin D, Tsuda M, Inoue K, Gravel C, Salter MW, De Koninck Y (2005) BDNF from microglia causes the shift in neuronal anion gradient underlying neuropathic pain. Nature 438: 1017-1021
Davis KD, Kiss ZHT, Luo L, Tasker RR, Lozano AM, Dostrovsky JO (1998) Phantom sensations generated by thalamic microstimulation. Nature 391: 385-387
Dettmers C, Liepert J, Adler T, Rzanny R, Rijntjes M, van Schayck R, Kaiser W, Brückner L, Weiller C (1999) Abnormal motor cortex organization contralateral to early upper limb amputation in humans. Neurosci Lett 263: 41-44
Devor M (2005) Response of injured nerve. In: M Koltzenburg, SB McMahon (eds): Wall and Melzack’s textbook of pain. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 905-927
Devor M (2006) Sodium channels and mechanisms of neuropathic pain. J Pain 7: S3-S12
Devor M, Wall PD (1978) Reorganisation of spinal cord sensory map after peripheral nerve injury. Nature 276: 75-76
Doetsch GS (1998) Perceptual significance of somatosensory cortical reorganization following peripheral denervation. Neuroreport 9: R29-R35
Draganski B, Moser T, Lummel N, Ganssbauer S, Bogdahn U, Haas F, May A (2006) Decrease of thalamic gray matter following limb amputation. NeuroImage 31: 951-957
Elbert T, Flor H, Birbaumer N, Knecht S, Hampson S, Larbig W, Taub E (1994) Extensive reorganization of the somatosensory cortex in adult humans after nervous system injury. Neuroreport 5: 2593-2597
Elbert T, Pantev C, Wienbruch C, Rockstroh B, Taub E (1995) Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 270: 305-307
Elbert T, Sterr A, Flor H, Rockstroh B, Knecht S, Pantev C, Wienbruch C, Taub E (1997) Inputincrease and input-decrease types of cortical reorganization after upper extremity amputation in humans. Exp Brain Res 117: 161-164
Ergenzinger ER, Glasier MM, Hahm JO, Pons TP (1998) Cortically induced thalamic plasticity in the primate somatosensory system. Nat Neurosci 1: 226-229
Flor H (2002) Phantom-limb pain: characteristics, causes, and treatment. Lancet Neurol 1: 182-189
Flor H, Braun C, Elbert T, Birbaumer N (1997) Extensive reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in chronic back pain patients. Neurosci Lett 224: 5-8
Flor H, Denke C, Schaefer M, Grüsser S (2001) Effect of sensory discrimination training on cortical reorganisation and phantom limb pain. Lancet 357: 1763-1764
Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht S, Wienbruch C, Pantev C, Birbaumer N, Larbig W, Taub E (1995) Phantomlimb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation. Nature 375: 482-484
Flor H, Elbert T, Muhlnickel W, Pantev C, Wienbruch C, Taub E (1998) Cortical reorganization and phantom phenomena in congenital and traumatic upper-extremity amputees. Exp Brain Res 119: 205-212
Flor H, Nikolajsen L, Staehelin Jensen T (2006) Phantom limb pain: a case of maladaptive CNS plasticity? Nat Rev Neurosci 7: 873-881
Florence SL, Taub HB, Kaas JH (1998) Large-scale sprouting of cortical connections after peripheral injury in adult macaque monkeys. Science 282: 1117-1121
Fried K, Govrin-Lippman R, Rosenthal F, Ellisman MH, Devor M (1991) Ultrastructure of afferent axon endings in a neuroma. J Neurocytol 20: 682-701
Giraux P, Sirigu A (2003) Illusory movements of the paralyzed limb restore motor cortex activity. NeuroImage 20: S107-S111
Gorodetskaya N, Constantin C, Janig W (2003) Ectopic activity in cutaneous regenerating afferent nerve fibers following nerve lesion in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 18: 2487-2497
Grüsser SM, Mühlnickel W, Schaefer M, Villringer K, Christmann C, Koeppe C, Flor H (2004) Remote activation of referred phantom sensation and cortical reorganization in human upper extremity amputees. Exp Brain Res 154: 97-102
Grüsser SM, Winter C, Mühlnickel W, Denke C, Karl A, Villringer K, Flor H (2001) The relationship of perceptual phenomena and cortical reorganization in upper extremity amputees. Neuroscience 102: 263-272
Hanley MA, Jensen MP, Smith DG, Ehde DM, Edwards WT, Robinson LR (2007) Preamputation pain and acute pain predict chronic pain after lower extremity amputation. J Pain 8: 102-109
Harris AJ (1999) Cortical origin of pathological pain. Lancet 354: 1464-1466
Hrbek V (1976) New pathophysiological interpretation of the so-called phantom limb and phantom pain syndromes. Act Univ Palack Olomuc 80: 79-90
Jain N, Florence SL, Qi HX, Kaas JH (2000) Growth of new brainstem connections in adult monkeys with massive sensory loss. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 5546-5550
Jensen TS, Nikolajsen LJ (2005) Phantom limb. In: M Koltzenburg, SB McMahon (eds): Wall and Melzack’s textbook of pain. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 961-971
Jones EG, Pons TP (1998) Thalamic and brainstem contributions to large-scale plasticity of primate somatosensory cortex. Science 282: 1121-1125
Jänig W, McLachlan E (1984) On the fate of sympathetic and sensory neurons projecting into a neuroma of the superficial peroneal nerve in the cat. J Comp Neurol 225: 302-311
Kaas JH (1999) Is most of neural plasticity in the thalamus cortical? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 7622-7623
Kaas JH, Florence SL, Jain N (1997) Reorganization of sensory systems of primates after injury. Neuroscientist 3: 123-130
Kaas JH, Florence SL, Jain N (1999) Subcortical contributions to massive cortical reorganizations. Neuron 22: 657-660
Karl A, Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Cohen LG, Flor H (2001) Reorganization of motor and somatosensory cortex in upper extremity amputees with phantom limb pain. J Neurosci 21: 3609-3618
Karl A, Muhlnickel W, Kurth R, Flor H (2004) Neuroelectric source imaging of steady-state movement- related cortical potentials in human upper extremity amputees with and without phantom limb pain. Pain 110: 90-102
Katz J (1992) Psychophysiological contributions to phantom limbs. Canadian J Psychiatry 37: 282-298
Katz J, Melzack R (1990) Pain “memories” in phantom limbs: Review and clinical observations. Pain 43: 319-336
Knecht S, Henningsen H, Elbert T, Flor H, Hohling C, Pantev C, Taub E (1996) Reorganizational and perceptional changes after amputation. Brain 119: 1213-1219
Knecht S, Henningsen H, Hohling C, Elbert T, Flor H, Pantev C, Taub E (1998) Plasticity of plasticity? Changes in the pattern of perceptual correlates of reorganization after amputation. Brain 121: 717-724
Krane EJ, Heller LB (1995) The prevalence of phantom sensation and pain in pediatric amputees. J Pain Symptom Manage 10: 21-29
Larbig W, Montoya P, Flor H, Bilow H, Weller S, Birbaumer N (1996) Evidence for a change in neural processing in phantom limb pain patients. Pain 67: 275-283
Levy LM, Ziemann U, Chen R, Cohen LG (2002) Rapid modulation of GABA in sensorimotor cortex induced by acute deafferentation. Ann Neurol 52: 755-761
Liepert J, Bauder H, Miltner WHR, Taub E, Weiller C (2000) Treatment-induced cortical reorganization after stroke in humans. Stroke 31: 1210-1216
Liepert J, Miltner WHR, Bauder H, Sommer M, Dettmers C, Taub E, Weiller C (1998) Motor cortex plasticity during constraint-induced movement therapy in stroke patients. Neurosci Lett 250: 5-8
Lotze M, Flor H, Grodd W, Larbig W, Birbaumer N (2001) Phantom movements and pain - An MRI study in upper limb amputees. Brain 124: 2268-2277
Lotze M, Grodd W, Birbaumer N, Erb M, Huse E, Flor H (1999) Does use of a myoelectric prosthesis prevent cortical reorganization and phantom limb pain? Nat Neurosci 2: 501-502
MacLachlan M, McDonald D, Waloch J (2004) Mirror treatment of lower limb phantom pain: a case study. Disabil Rehabil 26: 901-904
Maihöfner C, Handwerker HO, Neundörfer B, Birklein F (2003) Patterns of cortical reorganization in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 61: 1707-1715
Maihöfner C, Handwerker HO, Neundörfer B, Birklein F (2004) Cortical reorganization during recovery from complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 63: 693-701
McCabe CS, Haigh RC, Halligan PW, Blake DR (2005) Simulating sensory-motor incongruence in healthy volunteers: implications for a cortical model of pain. Rheumatology 44: 509-516
McCabe CS, Haigh RC, Ring EFJ, Halligan PW, Wall PD, Blake DR (2003) A controlled pilot study of the utility of mirror visual feedback in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (type 1). Rheumatology 42: 97-101
Melzack R (1990) Phantom limbs and the concept of a neuromatrix. Trends Neurosci 13: 88-92
Melzack R (2005) Evolution of the neuromatrix theory of pain. Pain Pract 5: 85-94
Melzack R, Israel R, Lacroix R, Schultz G (1997) Phantom limbs in people with congenital limb deficiency or amputation in early childhood. Brain 9: 1603-1620
Melzack R, Loeser JD (1978) Phantom body pain in paraplegics: evidence for a central “pattern generating mechanism” for pain. Pain 4: 195-210
Merzenich M, Nelson RJ, Stryker MP, Cynader MS, Schoppmann A, Zook JM (1984) Somatosensory cortical map changes following digit amputation in adult monkeys. J Comp Neurol 224: 591-605
Moore KA, Kohno T, Karchewski LA, Scholz J, Baba H, Woolf CJ (2002) Partial peripheral nerve injury promotes a selective loss of GABAergic inhibition in the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord. J Neurosci 22: 6724-6731
Nikolajsen L, Ilkjaer S, Christensen JH, Kroner K, Jensen TS (1997) Randomized trial of epidural bupivacaine and morphine in prevention of stump and phantom pain in lower-limb amputation. Lancet 350: 1353-1537
Nikolajsen L, Ilkjaer S, Jensen TS (2000) Relationship between mechanical sensitivity and postamputation pain: a prospective study. Eur J Pain 4: 327-334
Nikolajsen L, Ilkjaer S, Kroner K, Christensen JH, Jensen TS (1997) The influence of preamputation pain on postamputation stump and phantom pain. Pain 72: 393-405
Nyström B, Hagbarth KE (1981) Microelectrode recordings from transected nerves in amputees with phantom limb pain. Neurosci Lett 27: 211-216
Pons TP, Garraghty PE, Ommaya AK, Kaas JH, Taub E, Mishkin M (1991) Massive cortical reorganization after sensory deafferentation in adult macaques. Science 252: 1857-1860
Ramachandran VS, Rogers Ramachandran D (1996) Synaesthesia in phantom limbs induced with mirrors. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 263: 377-386
Ramachandran VS, Rogers Ramachandran D, Stewart M (1992) Perceptual correlates of massive cortical reorganization. Science 258: 1159-1160
Ramachandran VS, Stewart M, Rogers RD (1992) Perceptual correlates of massive cortical reorganization. Neuroreport 3: 583-586
Recanzone GH, Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM, Grajski KA, Dinse HR (1992) Topographic reorganization of the hand representation in cortical area 3b owl monkeys trained in a frequency-discrimination task. J Neurophysiol 67: 1031-1056
Riese W, Bruck G (1950) Le membre fantôme chez l’entant. Rev Neurol 83: 221-222
Rosen G, Hugdahl K, Ersland L, Lundervold A, Smievoll AI, Barndon R, Sundberg H, Thomsen T, Roscher BE, Tjolsen A, Engelsen B (2001) Different brain areas activated during imagery of painful and non-painful ‘finger movements’ in a subject with an amputated arm. Neurocase 7: 255-260
Rothemund Y, Grusser SM, Liebeskind U, Schlag PM, Flor H (2004) Phantom phenomena in mastectomized patients and their relation to chronic and acute pre-mastectomy pain. Pain 107: 140-146
Saadah ES, Melzack R (1994) Phantom limb experiences in congenital limb-deficient adults. Cortex 30: 479-485
Schmidt AP, Takahashi ME, de Paula Posso I (2005) Phantom limb pain induced by spinal anesthesia. Clinics 60: 263-264
Sherman RA (1997) Phantom pain. Plenum, New York
Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Parker L (1984) Chronic phantom and stump pain among American veterans: Results of a survey. Pain 18: 83-95
Shukla GD, Sahu SC, Tripathi RP, Gupta DK (1982) A psychiatric study of amputees. Br J Psychiatry 141: 50-53
Shukla GD, Sahu SC, Tripathi RP, Gupta DK (1982) Phantom limb: A phenomenological study. Br J Psychiatry 141: 54-58
Squire LR, Kandel ER (1999) Memory. From mind to molecules. Scientific American Library, New York
Sterr A, Muller MM, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Pantev C, Taub E (1998) Changed perceptions in Braille readers. Nature 391: 134-135
Sterr A, Muller MM, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Pantev C, Taub E (1998) Perceptual correlates of changes in cortical representation of fingers in blind multifinger Braille readers. J Neurosci 18: 4417-4423
Taub E, Uswatte G, Elbert T (2002) New treatments in neurorehabilitation founded on basic research. Nat Rev Neurosci 3: 228-236
Treede RD, Kenshalo DR, Gracely RH, Jones AKP (1999) The cortical representation of pain. Pain 79: 105-111
Ueda H (2006) Molecular mechanisms of neuropathic pain-phenotypic switch and initiation mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther 109: 57-77
Wall PD, Gutnick M (1974) Ongoing activity in peripheral nerves: the physiology and pharmacology of impulses originating from a neuroma. Exp Neurol 43: 580-593
Wang S, Lim G, Yang L, Zeng Q, Sung B, Martyn JA, Mao J (2005) A rat model of unilateral hindpaw burn injury: slowly developing rightwards shift of the morphine dose-response curve. Pain 116: 87-95
Waxman SG, Hains BC (2006) Fire and phantoms after spinal cord injury: Na+ channels and central pain. Trends Neurosci 29: 207-215
Wei F, Zhuo M (2001) Potentiation of sensory responses in the anterior cingulate cortex following digit amputation in the anaesthetised rat. J Physiol-London 532: 823-833
Weinstein S, Sersen EA, Vetter RJ (1964) Phantoms and somatic sensation in cases of congenital aplasia. Cortex 1: 276-290
Weiss T, Miltner WHR (2006) Selektive C-Faser- Stimulation durch Stimulation winziger Haut areale. Schmerz 20: 238-244
Weiss T, Miltner WHR (2007) Zentralnervöse nozizeptive Verarbeitung: Netzwerke, Schmerz und Reorganisation. Manuelle Medizin 45: 38-44
Weiss T, Miltner WHR, Adler T, Bruckner L, Taub E (1999) Decrease in phantom limb pain associated with prosthesis-induced increased use of an amputation stump in humans. Neurosci Lett 272: 131-134
Weiss T, Miltner WHR, Dillmann J, Meissner W, Huonker R, Nowak H (1998) Reorganization of the somatosensory cortex after amputation of the index finger. Neuroreport 9: 213-216
Weiss T, Miltner WHR, Huonker R, Friedel R, Schmidt I, Taub E (2000) Rapid functional plasticity of the somatosensory cortex after finger amputation. Exp Brain Res 134: 199-203
Weiss T, Miltner WHR, Liepert J, Meissner W, Taub E (2004) Rapid functional plasticity in the primary somatomotor cortex and perceptual changes after nerve block. Eur J Neurosci 20: 3413-3423
Wiech K, Kiefer RT, Topfner S, Preissl H, Braun C, Unertl K, Flor H, Birbaumer N (2004) A placebo- controlled randomized crossover trial of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor antagonist, memantine, in patients with chronic phantom limb pain. Anesth Analg 98: 408-413
Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z, Xu XJ, Hökfelt T (2002) The role of spinal cholecystokinin in chronic pain states. Pharmacol Toxicol 91: 398-403
Wilder-Smith OH, Arendt-Nielsen L (2006) Postoperative hyperalgesia: its clinical importance and relevance. Anesthesiology 104: 601-607
Wilkins KL, McGrath PJ, Finley GA, Katz J (1998) Phantom limb sensations and phantom limb pain in child and adolescent amputees. Pain 78: 7-12
Willoch F, Rosen G, Tolle TR, Oye I, Wester HJ, Berner N, Schwaiger M, Bartenstein P (2000) Phantom limb pain in the human brain: Unraveling neural circuitries of phantom limb sensations using positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol 48: 842- 849
Woolf CJ (2004) Dissecting out mechanisms responsible for peripheral neuropathic pain: implications for diagnosis and therapy. Life Sci 74: 2605-2610
Woolf CJ, Chong MS (1993) Preemptive analgesia - treating postoperative pain by preventing the establishment of central sensitization. Anesth Analg 77: 362-379
Wu CWH, Kaas JH (1999) Reorganization in primary motor cortex of primates with long-standing therapeutic amputations. J Neurosci 19: 7679-7697
Yang TT, Gallen CC, Schwartz B, Bloom FE, Ramachandran VS, Cobb S (1994) Sensory maps in the human brain. Nature 368: 592-593
